The United States has chronically low voter turnout compared to other democracies — typically 55-60% in presidential elections, lower in midterms. Factors that increase turnout: higher education, older age, higher income, strong party identification, competitive elections, and ease of registration. Factors that depress turnout: strict voter ID laws, inconvenient polling hours, registration barriers, and lack of competitive races. The Electoral College means presidential campaigns concentrate on swing states — voters in non-competitive states see little campaign activity and may feel their vote matters less.
2
Political Parties — What They Do
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Political parties serve as linkage institutions — they connect citizens to government. Key functions: recruiting and nominating candidates, mobilizing voters, organizing government (controlling committees, setting legislative agenda), and providing a "brand" that helps voters make decisions. The U.S. has a two-party system driven by winner-take-all (plurality) elections — third parties consistently fail to win office despite sometimes influencing outcomes. Party platforms are important: they represent the official stated positions of each party on major issues, though elected officials don't always follow them.
3
Interest Groups & Their Influence
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Interest groups are organizations that advocate for specific policy goals. They influence government through: lobbying (direct contact with legislators and staff), campaign contributions (through PACs and Super PACs), litigation (filing lawsuits to challenge or enforce laws), grassroots mobilization (activating their members to contact elected officials), and the revolving door (moving personnel between government and industry). Pluralism holds that democracy works through competition among interest groups — no single group can dominate because others will counterbalance. Critics argue wealthy, organized interests have disproportionate influence.
4
Media & Agenda Setting
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The media doesn't tell people what to think — but it powerfully shapes what they think about (agenda setting). It also frames issues in ways that influence how people evaluate them (framing). Traditional media (broadcast TV, newspapers) has declined; social media and partisan cable news dominate. The result is increased polarization and echo chambers where people primarily encounter information that confirms existing views. The media acts as a watchdog (investigative journalism) but also as an entertainment industry whose business model often rewards conflict and outrage over substantive policy coverage.
5
Campaign Finance & Citizens United
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Money in politics is regulated by the Federal Election Commission (FEC). Key concepts: hard money (regulated direct contributions to candidates), soft money (less regulated money to parties), PACs (Political Action Committees — raise and spend money on behalf of candidates with limits), Super PACs (can raise and spend unlimited amounts on "independent expenditures" — cannot coordinate directly with campaigns). Citizens United v. FEC (2010) held that corporations and unions have First Amendment rights to spend unlimited money on independent political ads. The result has been a massive increase in outside spending in federal elections.
6
Gerrymandering & Redistricting
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After each decennial census, congressional districts are redrawn to reflect population changes. The party in control of state legislatures often draws districts to favor their own candidates — this is gerrymandering. Partisan gerrymandering packs opposition voters into few districts or cracks them across many. Racial gerrymandering uses race as the predominant factor — Shaw v. Reno (1993) ruled this violates Equal Protection. Baker v. Carr (1962) established that courts can review apportionment questions — before Baker, this was considered a political question courts couldn't touch.
Baker v. Carr — courts can review apportionment; one person one vote principle
Shaw v. Reno — racial gerrymandering triggers strict scrutiny even when benefiting minorities
Citizens United — political spending = protected speech; led to Super PACs
The difference between PACs and Super PACs — coordination rules matter
Linkage institutions and their functions — parties, interest groups, media, elections
Factors affecting voter turnout — what increases and decreases it
Agenda setting, framing, and priming — how media influences but doesn't dictate opinion
Confusing PACs (limited, can coordinate) with Super PACs (unlimited, cannot coordinate directly)
Saying Citizens United allows unlimited direct contributions — it allows unlimited independent expenditures
Forgetting that Shaw v. Reno applies to ALL racial gerrymandering, not just packing minorities into few districts
Thinking the two-party system is in the Constitution — it's a product of our election rules (plurality voting)
Unit 5 is the most politically immediate unit — it's about the machinery of democracy that your students will interact with when they turn 18. Voting, campaigns, parties, money, media — these are the channels through which the public (theoretically) controls government. But the picture that emerges from Unit 5 is complicated: low turnout, unlimited campaign money, partisan gerrymandering, algorithmic media bubbles. Understanding these mechanisms — and their flaws — is essential preparation for citizenship. Know the system well enough to know why it sometimes doesn't work the way it's supposed to.
Unit 5 FRQ Practice
3 prompts
Concept App 3 pts
Super PACs and Campaign Finance
Following Citizens United v. FEC (2010), a Super PAC supporting a Senate candidate runs $5 million in television ads without coordinating with the campaign. The candidate's opponent argues this violates campaign finance law. Using the concept of independent expenditures and the ruling in Citizens United, explain whether the Super PAC's spending is constitutionally protected...
In Baker v. Carr (1962), the Supreme Court held that federal courts have jurisdiction to review legislative apportionment. In Shaw v. Reno (1993), the Court held that a majority-minority district in North Carolina was subject to strict scrutiny under the Equal Protection Clause. Explain the constitutional basis for each ruling. In what ways are these cases consistent with each other?
Develop an argument: Does the role of money in American political campaigns undermine democratic participation? Use at least one piece of evidence from Citizens United v. FEC, the concept of linkage institutions, or your knowledge of campaign finance law. Use at least one additional piece of evidence. Respond to an opposing perspective...